Biography:
C.L.R. JAMES
By Akins Vidale
Posted: June 29, 2004
"Mankind has obviously reached the end of something.
The crisis is absolute. Bourgeois civilization is falling
apart, and even while it collapses, devotes its main
energies to the preparation of further holocausts…"
- Dialectic Materialism and The Fate Of Humanity-
C.L.R. James (1947)
Best known as the author of The Black Jacobins: Toussaint
L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution, Cyril Lionel
Robert James was born on January 4, 1901 in Port of
Spain, the largest city in colonial Trinidad. Most
of his youth was spent in the village of Tunapuna,
just about eight miles outside the city. His intellectual
legacy is succinctly described as complex and controversial,
having made significant contributions in the fields
of sport criticism, Caribbean history, literary criticism,
Pan African politics and Marxist theory.
Up to the time of his death in May 1989, he displayed
a unique understanding of the dilemma of humanity,
a dilemma he called the struggle between socialism
and barbarism. In his early Caribbean phase, it was
implicit in his depiction of character and society
through fiction and cricket writing; later it became
politically focused through his active engagement with
the tradition of revolutionary Marxism; until eventually,
as a result of his experience of the New World, it
became the expansive and unifying theme by which James
approached the complexity of the modern world. These
themes, if any, most accurately separate James' intellectual
endeavours into discernable while not distinct phases,
which can then be examined. It is this apparent lack
of coherence in James' intellectual endeavours, which
makes him unique. Moreover it is difficult at the least
to isolate any of these as his true legacy and by his
own words it is not necessary to do so, having said
that …however far (he) may seem to leave politics,
(he is) really on that subject, that is, an understanding
of society.
His father was a schoolteacher, (the post of schoolteacher,
at the time was, a significant position in the colonial
Caribbean) and his mother, whom he described as "…a
reader, one of the most tireless I have ever seen",
had been educated in a Wesleyan convent. The influence
of James' parents in his formative years is undeniable.
The very period in itself proved to be a determinant
factor where, the educated Blacks of the post-emancipation
period, a group his parents belonged to, had a profound
effect on the very direction of the Caribbean societies.
His biographer Paul Buhle writes of his family that
they:
"…had for two generations, on both sides,
embraced respectability with a ferocious grip, 'not
an ideal ... but an armour' against the angers of
lumpenization. They had been more or less successful
in this effort.
All achievements remained precarious. But craft workers,
schoolmasters, close readers of the press and of
fine literature, they made a coherent life for themselves
that would be the envy of colonized peoples across
the world."
However, while his parents would have a key role in
his formative years, it was his access to the game
of cricket that could arguably be acknowledged as having
affected him the most. James, recalls his early ritual,
perched on a chair engaging in innocent analysis that
he would only be aware of later on:
"Our house was superbly situated, exactly
behind the wicket. A huge tree on one side and another
house
on the other limited the view of the ground, but
an umpire could have stood at the bedroom window.
By standing
on a chair a small boy of six could watch practice
every afternoon and matches on Saturdays . . .
From the chair also he could mount on to the window-sill
and so stretch a groping hand for the books on
top
of the wardrobe. Thus early the pattern of my life
was set."
Not only did James, through watching, playing and
studying cricket, develop at a precociously early age
the method by which he later examined all other social
phenomena; but also, as a boy, he had responded instinctively
to something located much deeper in human experience.
Cricket was whole. It expressed, in a fundamental way,
the elements which constituted human existence - combining
as it did spectacle, history, politics, sequence/tableau,
movement/stasis, individual/society. He saw the game
as extending beyond the "boundary" of the
cricket pitch, interrogating the tenuous boundaries
that separate culture from politics, race from class,
high culture from low. Those "who only cricket
know" forget that cricket, both a legacy of British
Imperialism and a means of resistance against it, is
an instrument of power, political ideology, and social
transformation. In other words, James insists upon
the inextricability or simultaneity of culture and
politics. A theme he refines later in the United States.
James's "obsession" with the novels of Thackeray,
particularly Vanity Fair, equally indebted to his infamous
chair, was a decisive part of this developing awareness,
and it fed directly into his close observations of
the personality in society. He absorbed, too, what
may inadequately be called the politics of Thackeray,
that sharp satire by which the novelist exposed the
petty pretensions and frustrated ambition of middle-class
British society. But, more than anything else, James
recognized early that literature offered him a vision
of society, a unique glimpse of the human forces and
struggles which animated history, a far cry from the
static lives of members of his own family and class.
It is this elusive experience, which had fascinated
him, that would provide fundamental themes for his
preliminary writings.
During the 1920s, James had begun to write fiction.
He was drawn to the vitality of back street life, particularly
to the independence and resourcefulness of its women.
It became the creative source for his first published
pieces; a series of short stories, La Divina Pastora
(1927), Turner's prosperity, Triumph (1929) and a full-length
novel, Minty Alley (1929). These established James
as a competent if not formidable prose writer. Moreover
they revealed the foundation of James's imaginative
skill in his close observation of the raw material
of human life. This closeness to the lives of ordinary
men and women was something James consciously developed,
but he never shook off his sense of being an outsider,
of looking on rather than being a participant in the
vibrancy of the ‘grassroots' communities. In
an interview with Ken Ramchand, James reminisces on
the contradiction between the literature which absorbed
him and his own life:
"My father was a teacher, and there were teachers
all around, his friends, they were working for the
Government and their behaviour was within strictly
limited areas. They weren't able to do anything out
of place (…) their life was narrow, limited and
very constricted according to certain principles and
attitudes. But in Shakespeare, Aeschylus, in Tolstoy,
in Dostoyevsky and the rest of them, things were taking
place and tremendous conflicts were taking place and
I found in the Caribbean, that in the life in which
I had been brought up and in which all those teachers
lived there was nothing corresponding to the violent
conflicts and explosions and peculiar and interesting
happenings that I found in Classic Literature…"
In spite of his relatively placid family environment,
by its very nature and the circles in which his father
moved, he was directly exposed to political thought,
although not necessarily radical political thought,
at an early age. The individual that provided this
influence through his frequent visits to the James
home was Hubert Alfonso Nurse. He was the father of
Malcolm Nurse whom James would later meet in the US
as George Padmore. [I moved this around considerably
as I found it rather convoluted] Hubert Alfonso Nurse
was a tremendous political mind in Trinidad. At the
time when James was just about 7 or 8, he would listen
to conversations between the two men. Through Mr. Nurse,
the young James received his first exposure to Pan
Africanists like Du Bois and Washington and the ideology
of the revolution began to emerge. In fact, James recalls
that he was the first man who said, "I am not
Anglican, I am not Roman Catholic; I am a Muslim".
James understood that he was not like the other visitors.
This was James' foundation, his early Caribbean phase.
It was not until later during his sojourn to England
that he transformed himself into a prolific Marxist
historian and political philosopher. However it is
in Trinidad that he makes his first attempt at political
analysis.
Early in 1930 his observation of Captain Cipriani
was a mixture of both awe and envy. Here was Cipriani,
as James put it, "saying all that was needed,
to mobilise the people and federation and education",
and he (James), a government servant, teaching at the
Government Training College, lecturer in English and
History, having progressive ideas but doing nothing,
handicapped by the fact that if he had said anything,
the Government would have thrown him out. His dilemma
would find itself in pages of "The Case for West-Indian
Self Government":
"In the colonies any man who speaks for his
country any man who dares to question the authority
of those who rule over him, any man who tries to
do for his own people what Englishmen are so proud
that
other Englishmen have done for theirs, immediately
becomes in the eyes of the colonial Englishman
a dangerous person, a wild revolutionary, a man with
no respect
for law and order, a self seeker to be crushed
at the first opportunity."
James sailed to England at the age of 31 with the
intention of becoming a novelist. It was a journey
many undertook from the colonies. Some sought education
abroad, particularly entry into the professions of
law and medicine; others were simply hungry for the
experiences of a bigger world than the one which circumscribed
the familiar society of their youth. For James, an
educated black man, the move to England was critical
if he was to realise his literary ambitions. On his
journey, James carried with him the unpublished manuscript
of the biography of Arthur Andrew Cipriani, the President
of the Trinidad Workingmen's Association, which would
be published in the Caribbean under the title of The
Life of Captain Cipriani: An Account of British Government
in the West Indies (1932) and excerpted in the UK as
The Case for West-Indian Self Government (1933).
This account of Captain Cipriani's political career
as a champion of the cause of West Indian self-government
and federation, and populist leader of "the unwashed
and unsoaped barefooted man" was James's first
public political intervention. His second would be
a look at one of the most revered leaders of the region,
Toussaint L'Ouverture. This also marks another phase
in his intellectual development.
In the United Kingdom, where he had come to pursue
his literary career, James fortuitously found a job
as cricket correspondent for the Manchester Guardian
and the Glasgow Herald. He also started to read Marxism
and decided to join first the Independent Labour Party
and then the Trotskyist movement, as a matter of course.
As he would recall later on, "when I'd finished
[with Marx, Lenin and Trotsky's writings], I said,
well, Marxism says that you have not only to read but
to be active… so I joined" It is necessary
to put this in here as James says of his books, Toussaint
and the Negro revolt, "…those are Marxist
books". Also from this period are the plays Toussaint
L'Ouverture (1936), which was performed at London's
Westminster Theatre with Paul Robeson in the lead role
and James himself in a minor part; World Revolution
1917-1936: The Rise and Fall of the Communist International
(1937), an orthodox Trotskyist history of the Comintern;
and A History of the Negro Revolt (1938), a collection
of studies on the Haitian Revolution, the role of Black
slaves in the American Civil War, Garveyism, and African
anti-colonial struggles.
He had already written and published in Trinidad,
but he "was interested in some black history or
history of black people where they did something, and
they were not being continually the subject of actions
and attitudes of other people". Through his preliminary
work in Trinidad he knew that he had to write on the
Haitian Revolution. "I would write that story,
but I didn't think of it in terms of the Black Jacobins.
When I went to England and then I went to France to
look up the Archives there I saw the revolution of
the colonial and underdeveloped peoples".
James, C.L.R. The Black Jacobins: Touissant L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution ">The Black Jacobins : Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution - by Cyril Lionel Robert James
It is in the Black Jacobins that James begins to establish
himself as a contemporary scholar. He redefines the
relation between Europe and the colonies in the struggle
for freedom and working class power. His ideological
positions are clearly evident throughout the text.
His juxtaposition of Marxism is all too apparent.
"The slaves worked on the land, and, like
revolutionary peasants everywhere, they aimed at
the extermination
of their oppressors. But working and living together
in gangs of hundreds on the huge sugar-factories
which covered North Plain, they were closer to a
modern proletariat
than any group of workers in existence at the time,
and the rising was, therefore, a thoroughly prepared
and organized mass movement."
The other focus of The Black Jacobins is the figure
of Toussaint L'Ouverture, the remarkable, yet fatally
flawed, slaves' military commander, negotiator and
political leader. James's own attitude towards Toussaint
is indicative of his own scepticisms of the West Indian
leadership, and the effects of colonisation on the
mind. He expresses this on page 85:
"Toussaint's error sprang from the very qualities
that made him what he was. It is easy to see today,
as his generals saw after he was dead, where he
had erred. It does not mean that they or any of us
would
have done better in his place. If Dessalines could
see so clearly and simply, it was because the ties
that bond this uneducated soldier to French civilisation
were of the slenderest. He saw what was under his
nose so well because he saw no further. Toussaint's
failure
was the failure of enlightenment, not of darkness."
James' concept of race is also apparent as he analyses
the revolutionary potential and progress according
to economic and class distinctions, rather than racial
distinctions. This is not to say that James was naïve
on the question of race.
The Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 led James
to initiate his life-long attempt to synthesize Pan
Africanism and Marxism. At the time of his conversion
to Trotskyism, James considered them to be virtually
synonymous. He lamented that he was bemused at the
separatist ideas people possessed and expressed about
Marxism versus the nationalist or racialist struggle.
It must be remembered that while in England he edited
both the Trotskyist paper and the nationalist, pro-African
paper of George Padmore, and as he put it "…nobody
quarreled. The Trotskyists read and sold the African
paper and ... there were (African) nationalists who
read and sold the Trotskyist paper. I moved among them,
we attended each other's meetings and there was no
problem because we had the same aim in general: freedom
by revolution." James would also explore contradiction
within his own personality, within the context of female
companionship. At the centre was Constance Webb, the
young American woman, who grasped instinctively the
connections between those facets of human experience,
which he had to work hard to bring into an active relationship.
For almost a decade James pursued this project privately,
while being deeply immersed in more conventional political
work that arose through his involvement in the Trotskyist
movement. This period would be a real test of where
James stood politically. James had begun to espouse
doubts in Trotsky, articulating his concerns in his
writings. The signing, in 1940, of the Hitler-Stalin
pact, was viewed as a crisis in the revolutionary movement
and required a re-examination of the Russian Revolution,
and the question of the Soviet Union as a revolutionary
State. The lengthy essay, Dialectical Materialism and
the Fate of Humanity (1947) was James' attempt to sort
out some of ambiguities in Trotskyist thinking, relating
them directly to the dilemma at hand. He does so showing
a distinctly more mature resolve on the subject matter
- Marxist theory and dialectics - than when he had
first moved from Trinidad in 1932. James sums up his
newfound clarity towards the end of the paper as follows:
"Objectively and subjectively the solution of
the crisis demands a total mobilisation of all forces
in society. Partial solutions only create further disorders
in the economy; partial demands, as such, because they
are abstractions from the reality, lead only to disappointment;
partial demands by leaders on the workers fail to mobilise
their energies and leave them with a sense of frustration
and hopelessness. Thus not only the concept but the
need for universality reigns throughout all phases
of society…This was the constant theme of Trotsky
before he was murdered in 1940."
While this paper was a historical examination of the
question of Marxist intellectualism and the realisation
of the perverse Stalinist Russia, James was all too
aware of his immediate surroundings. He showed keen
insight into the contradictory status of African Americans
in the wider American society.
He continued to write on the race question, incorporating
a growing understanding the revolutionary history of
America as it related specifically to its Black population.
He displayed a prescient understanding of the immense
political significance of these struggles for America
as a whole, interpreting the struggle as having significance
for the millions of colonial peoples worldwide, struggling
to throw off the shackles of imperialist rule. His
statement to the Trotskyist movement, The Revolutionary
Answer to the Negro Problem in the USA (1948) was his
attempt to articulate what he had so profoundly understood.
Through his work on history and the dialectic, and
his engagement with pressing political questions in
the United States, particularly the Black question,
James had identified serious problems in Trotskyist
ideas and method. Following Hegel, James contrasted
the operation of dialectical thinking and creative
reason, with the static categories of understanding
which he identified as the fundamental flaw in the
Trotskyist method itself. A flaw, which as far as James
was concerned, had revealed itself most clearly in
Trotsky's approach to the nature of the Soviet Union.
Thus Anna Grimshaw could only surmise that cumulatively,
the philosophical and political conclusions, which
James reached during his American years, made his severance
from the Trotskyist movement practically inevitable.
As class struggle began to decline, James started
to identify more with the emerging nationalism of Africa
and the Caribbean. In 1941 James left the Socialist
Workers Party and formed the Johnson-Forest Tendency
with philosopher Raya Dunayevskaya and others. The
group translated sections of Marx's 1844 Economic and
Philosophical Manuscripts, attempted to insert Hegelian
philosophy more directly into Marxist discussion, and
developed a "state capitalist" analysis of
the Soviet Union.
Furthermore he had defined a new position with respect
to the nature of the Soviet Union and the role of the
vanguard party. Within the Trotskyist milieu from which
Johnson-Forest had emerged, their revolutionary optimism
and belief in a coming workers' uprising that would
overthrow State capitalism, was the subject of much
scorn and ridicule. To the mounting pessimism of the
Left, Johnson-Forest countered, as Paul Buhle has correctly
summarised, "a vision of ordinary people in the
US and everywhere, searching urgently for the means
to remake the quality of their existence".
In 1950 James drove Johnson-Forest out of the SWP
and set up the Correspondence Publishing Committee.
James's commitment to revolutionary Marxism, however,
remained unshakeable. James's fifteen-year stay in
the United States is widely acknowledged to have produced
his most important work. He often said so himself.
Undoubtedly, the documents he wrote as a member of
the Johnson Forest Tendency constitute a major contribution
to the theory and practice of Marxism, extending the
tradition to incorporate the distinctive features of
the world in which James lived. By the mid-1950s, the
Johnson-Forest Tendency having broken from Trotskyism's
insistence on a revolutionary party, attempted to create
a new type of Marxist organization. James began to
advocate a loose form of struggle, which one writer
has termed a "celebration of spontaneity."
James uncovered in America an intense desire among
people to bring the separate facets of human experience
into an active relationship, to express their full
and free individuality within new and expanded conceptions
of social life. This was "the struggle for happiness." James
was conscious of this struggle within his own life,
for he, too, was seeking integration. It found striking
expression in the handwritten note to Constance which
James attached to the back of his essay, Dialectical
Materialism and the Fate of Humanity. He wrote:
"This is the man who loves you. I took up
dialectic five years ago. I knew a lot of things
before and I
was able to master it. I know a lot of things about
loving you. I am only just beginning to apply them.
I can master that with the greatest rapidity -
just give me a hand. I feel all sorts of new powers,
freedoms
etc. surging in me. You released so many of my
constrictions. . . . We will live. This is our new
world - where there
is no distinction between political and personal
any more."
It can be seen here that James under went an irreversible
transition in his personality. The young boy of eight
who stood at the window in Tunapuna, so innocently
being transformed by the game of cricket had now taken
on a political demeanour which was so instructive that
he sought to formulate a personal life around it. By
the late 1940s the tensions between his political role
in the Johnson Forest Tendency and his personal commitment
to a shared life with Constance Webb were almost tearing
him apart. His marriage to Constance ended.
In the last period of his American sojourn, while
fighting deportation, James wrote a long unfinished
manuscript entitled American Civilization. James was
seeking to grasp the whole (a recurrent theme he had
adapted from his critique of the game of Cricket) at
a particular moment in history. He, sought to distill
the universal progress of civilization into a specific
contrast between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries
(no doubt the Russian Revolution influenced this demarcation).
The culture of the intellectuals was giving way to
the emergence of the people as the animating force
of history. His interpretation of events, as had been
done before in Black Jacobins, was form the basis of
those progressive forces emanating from the proletariat
as opposed to the dominating ideologies of those who
won wars.
James's understanding of Herman Melville lay at the
centre of his work on America. He eventually made his
debt to Melville more explicit and revised his drafted
chapter on the nineteenth-century writers into a full-length
critical study of Moby Dick- Mariners, Renegades and
Castaway: The Story of Herman Melville and the World
We Live In (1953), - during his detention in Ellis
Island. The book became the basis of his political
campaign to avoid deportation from the United States.
This period was followed by a series of essays on
aesthetics, literary criticism, cinema and the popular
arts. It was characteristic of James that, as a prelude
to offering his particular interpretation of Shakespeare,
he outlined the foundations of his method. This involved
taking a position vigorously opposed to the conventional
tradition of literary criticism. James began to make
explicit the principles which governed his approach
in the opening pages of a document known as Preface
to Criticism (1955). He anchored his critical method
in Aristotle's Poetics. He took as his point of departure
the dramatic quality of Shakespeare's work and made
central an understanding of the performance itself,
the role of the audience and the development of character
and plot. It is not hard to identify here the emergent
form of the project, which later became James's other
masterpiece, the semi-autobiographical account of cricket
and colonial life in the West Indies titled, Beyond
a Boundary (1963).
Beyond A Boundary completed the search for integration
which James had begun in the Caribbean some sixty years
before. As a boy he had grasped intuitively the interconnectedness
of human experience and through political work in Europe's
revolutionary movement he developed a consistent method
for approaching the complexity of the modern world,
but it was his experience of America which enabled
him to realise fully his integrated vision of humanity.
Thus, it is almost impossible to think of Beyond A
Boundary as being removed from his unpublished manuscript
on American civilization. In both works James achieved
an extraordinary creative synthesis, a fusion of the
universal movement of world history with a particular
moment in contemporary society.
In the years which followed the publication of Beyond
A Boundary, James travelled widely through Africa and
the Caribbean. His energies became focused on the problems
of the newly independent countries. The Gold Coast
revolution stood at the centre of the work he carried
out during the second part of his life. The issues
raised by this landmark in modern history drew him
back into active involvement with the Pan-African movement.
He was interested in exploring the dynamic connections
between different aspects of the black Diaspora in
order to establish the presence of Africa at the centre
of the emerging post-war order.
He returned to the Caribbean in 1958 after an absence
of twenty-six years, acutely aware of the significance
of the historical moment. He saw the approach of independence
as a time when fundamental questions concerning government,
society and the individual were unusually clarified.
He saw the region as being at the forefront of a critical
turning point in the history of civilisation. James
raised these issues in his public speeches, writings
and journalism up until the early 1960s. He was anxious
to make the Caribbean people aware that they were indeed
at the forefront of the struggle to found the new society — one,
which would reflect something fundamental about the
movement of world society as a whole.
James believed that Caribbean society two hundred
years ago had revealed the critical elements of a world
system still in the early stages of its evolution.
He understood the island societies at independence
to be similarly placed. This lay behind his passionate
advocacy of a West Indian federation. He left no doubt
about his recognition of the power, creativity and
capacity for self-organisation among ordinary people.
The new leadership however held a different if not
opposing view. He left immediately after the elections
won by the nationalist movement, as he realised that
the latter was trading British colonialism for US neo-colonialism.
Upon his return, the clichéd prodigal son found
that Dr Eric Williams also had a differing view on
how that story should end, and when he returned in
1965 he was immediately placed under house arrest.
On his release he founded the Workers' and Farmers'
Party, which unsuccessful contested, the 1966 election.
James would play no further direct role in the politics
of the twin island state. In the last decades of his
life, James refashioned himself as a teacher and political
eminence grise in contexts as diverse as the UK, where
he lectured for the BBC on a variety of subjects spanning
Shakespeare to cricket, Pan-Africanism to Polish Solidarity,
and the US, where he finally achieved public recognition
as a surviving forefather of the Civil Rights and Black
Power movements.
During his last years James often reflected upon his
life's course, riding the gentle wave of academic fame
thrown up for him by the storms of Black Power, and
surrounding himself with eager young associates. Although
his strength was slowly, almost imperceptibly, slipping
away, he could in conversation often startle his visitors
with the brilliance of his insight, his grasp of the
details of history, the accuracy of his analysis of
contemporary events. He remained a revolutionary to
the core.
One of James' most important influences was the Russian
revolutionary Leon Trotsky. In contrast to Trotsky,
James came late to a political understanding of his
life. Having intimate experience with the debilitating
colonial system, James was a consistent and committed
activist against imperialism. He spent his life reflecting
on a contradictory consciousness torn between the metropole
and the colony. He was never able to synthesize these
opposites. Perhaps he came close in Beyond A Boundary,
finding within his own life something that could match
the allure of the back streets of Minty Alley. He learned
about himself as an artist through the great products
of Western civilization, the Bible, Shakespeare and
the classic nineteenth-century novel. But he also intuitively
grasped, from his Caribbean surroundings, the incapacity
of the accompanying 'master race' narcissism to encompass
the many-sidedness of humanity. Confronting the enigma
of Western civilization's self-destructive path, James
spent his lifetime searching out antidotes. He died
in his one bedroom flat in Brixton, London, in 1989.
Bibliography
Buhle, Paul. C.L.R. James: The Artist as Revolutionary .
Verso, London. 1986
Dorn, Paul. "A Controversial Caribbean: C.L.R.
James"
www.runmuki.com/paul/CLR_James.html
Farred, Grant, ed. Rethinking C. L. R. James . Blackwell,
Oxford, 1996.
Grimshaw, Anna. "C.L.R. James: A Revolutionary Vision for the 20th Century" Smyrna Press New
York, 1991
"Interviews with Ken Ramchand: C.L.R. James" 1980.
www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/articles/banyan.htm
James, C.L.R. "The Case for West Indian Self
Government." Hogarth Press, London, 1933.
James, C.L.R. Beyond a Boundary . Pantheon, New York,
1983.
James, C.L.R. The Black Jacobins: Touissant L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution . Allison & Busby,
London, 1980
James, C.L.R. "Dialectical Materialism and the
Fate of Humanity"
www.marxists.org/archive/james-clr/works/diamat/diamat47.htm
Santiago-Valles, W. F. "The Caribbean Intellectual
Tradition That Produced James and Rodney"
www.caribvoice.org/CaribbeanDocuments/intellectual.html
More Books by C.L.R. James in the BHM Shop
AfricaSpeaks.com at www.africaspeaks.com.
Copyright © 2004 AfricaSpeaks.com, www.africaspeaks.com
|